Organ Cloning Essay - 2326 Words

The idea of the possibility of cloning has long interested scientists from all over the world. The ability to create another life without the need to reproduce, simply a petri dish and some cells, is something that has been attempted to be done for decades. There are endless possibilities of the uses that cloning could bring, and it excites many and equally terrifies others. In was in 1997 when there was a big breakthrough of cloning occurred: the â€Å"birth† of Dolly the ewe. Dolly was cloned from an adult sheep in Scotland. Dolly was the beginning of the experimentation of cloning full mammals. We now clone many mice and claves all cloned from adult cells that still now fascinate many scientists. However, the idea of cloning and cloning†¦show more content†¦From tadpoles and amphibians, then came fish and insects and finally in the 1980s experimentation began on mammals. Before the cloning breakthrough of Dolly the ewe, many scientists did not believe it was poss ible to clone using DNA from adult animals. The scientists thought that cell differentiation was unalterable. However, the scientist Dr. Wilmut and his partners resolved this problem using a starvation technique. They starved adult cells of their nutrients and then the cells became inactive. Then once the cells were inactivated, the scientists introduced the DNA from a different cell and reconfigured the DNA to show all of its genes. The result of the cell was capable of making an animal practically genetically identical to the DNA of the original donor. Uncovering the replication stage and finding out how to manipulate and control the cells in mammals was a much more difficult task than what many thought, which is why the successful experimentation on mammals was not until much later on, 30 years after the first successful copy of a tadpole. Currently there is still much debate and wonder on the idea of cloning. There have been no real advances in human cloning due to the ethical and moral issues that many people have on the idea of actually cloning a full human. As well as it has been known that cloning isShow MoreRelatedCloning and Organ Donation810 Words   |  3 Pageshim an organ and even if he did, his family didn’t have the money to pay for a thousand dollar colon. Problems like this, where people can’t get/afford an organ, are happening everyday. People have tried to help this situation by donating their body parts, but too many people don’t/can’t. Cloning of human body parts is a safe alterna tive to this problem; it can help save many children and adults. Cloning allows the organ to be the patients own duplicate, it also makes the body keep the organ, notRead MoreBenefits Of Organ Replacement Using Cloning Technique1237 Words   |  5 Pages1. Counter-argument: It has a great contribution to organ replacement. When scientists are dealing with organ replacement using cloning technique, they no longer use Reproductive Cloning Technique (RCT) but they use Therapeutic Cloning Technique (TCT). Both techniques require the same laboratory procedures just that in RCT, they will insert the cloned embryos into the womb to grow until birth and in TCT, they will kill the cloned embryos for the stem cell. This stem cell is what the scientists getRead MoreThe Cloning Of Human Organs3494 Words   |  14 PagesEngineering Pigs for Human Organs When dealing with complex procedures like the genetic engineering of certain animals to be used for human organs there are not only numerous risks involved, countless hours of research, millions of dollars spent, but also there are many ethical concerns that need to be addressed. I chose to research about genetically modified pigs for the purpose of being used for their organs in humans because it was something that really caught my attention when we had a classRead More Cloning - It’s Time for Organ Farms Essay1441 Words   |  6 PagesIt’s Time for Organ Farms   Ã‚  Ã‚   Currently 70,000 Americans are on the organ waiting list and fewer than 20,000 of these people can hope to have their lives saved by human organ transplantation.1   As a result of this shortage, there has been a tremendous demand for research in alternative methods of organ transplantation.   Private companies are racing to develop these technologies with an estimated market of six billion dollars.2   Xenotransplantation, or cross-species organ transplantation, appearsRead MoreBiomedical Ethics: Cloning and Sale of Organs4459 Words   |  18 Pages Biomedical Ethics: Cloning and Sales of Organs To Sell or Not to Sell, that is the Question Table of Contents ITEM PAGE # Introduction 3 I. The Initial Horror 3 II. What is Cloning? 3 III. Bioethics 4 IV. Immanuel Kant 5 V. President’s Council on Bioethics (2002) 5 VI. Utilitarian Viewpoint 7 VII. The Debate on the Sale of Organs 8 VIII. Human Rights 12 IX. Justice Approach to Ethics 13 X. DistributiveRead MoreBiomedical Ethics: Cloning and Sales of Organs3677 Words   |  15 Pagesï » ¿Biomedical Ethics: Cloning and Sales of Organs July 17, 2012 Table of Contents ITEM PAGE # Introduction 3 I. The Initial Horror 3 II. What is Cloning? 3 III. Bioethics 5 IV. Immanuel Kant 5 V. Presidents Council on Bioethics (2002) 6 VI. Utilitarian Viewpoint 7 VII. The Debate on the Sale of Organs 8 VIII. Human Rights 12 IX. Justice Approach to Ethics 13 X. Distributive Justice Approach to Ethics 13 Summary and Conclusion 16 Biomedical Ethics: Cloning and Sales of Organs Introduction Read MoreHuman Cloning And Its Legality1347 Words   |  6 PagesHuman cloning is the creation of genetically identical or modified copy of a human. Human cloning is the reproduction of human cells and tissue. The possibility of human cloning has raised complications. These ethical concerns have provoked several nations to pass laws regarding human cloning and its legality. The common types of cloning is Gene cloning, reproductive cloning, and therapeutic cloning. Gene cloning is the process in which a gene is located and copied out of DNA extractedRead MoreModern Medicine And Biotechnology Have Increased The Lifespan Of Humans Across The World1282 Words   |  6 Pagesdevelopment. Cloning is a form of biotechnology. The process of producing an organism that is genetically identical is called cloning. Cloning is an asexual reproduction process. Cloning in biotechnology is manually cloning an organism or molecular cloning of DNA fragments. There are three types of cloning in biotechnology; reproductive cloning which are used to produce an exact copy of an existing organism, DNA cloning which are used to produce copies of DNA fragments, and Therapeutic cloning, which isRead MoreThe Consequences Of Human Cloning1200 Words   |  5 Pages Consequences of Human Cloning Harris Naseem 2391814 Embry Riddle Aeronautical University February 7th, 2016 Since the dawn of time, we humans have been trying to find solutions to issues that have been hindering mankind in terms of fighting illnesses, many of which do not have a cure as of 2016. Nonetheless, the medical community is rapidly finding the answers for many ailments that we humans would suffer in our lifetimes. One controversial method to finding an â€Å"all-in-one† solutionRead MoreSomatic Cell Nuclear Transfer Essay735 Words   |  3 Pagesof cloning have allowed for the possibility of human cloning. By using the process of somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), in which the DNA from an adult cell is transferred into an unfertilized egg, scientists have developed the ability to clone numerous types of animals related to humans. Cloning has proven to be useful in several areas of science, improving scientists understanding of the functions of genes and the cell cycle. In addition, scientists are on the path toward using cloning in order

Drug Prohibition †The solution that never worked Essay

Countries have been making drugs illegal over the years for varieties of reasons - be it to combat a perceived moral or health epidemic, to single out certain groups of people, or to reflect religious influences. Even when some drugs do not present notable health dangers, governments ban them. While there are many drugs that are unhealthy when abused, the drug policies around the world, particularly the United States, are inconsistent and oppressive. Drug laws were supposedly created for the good of society, but the prohibition of drugs only serves to cause problems, violence, and unrest. Starting from a historical standpoint, we can see that past endeavors to ban substances were often motivated by discrimination and racism. Drug†¦show more content†¦These deaths are due to drug wars and fights over territory between the various organized crime groups, who get their business by trafficking drugs over the United States border. Their booming business and death count directly d epend on the prohibition of drugs to continue. Former US narcotics officer Michael Levine worked undercover with some Colombian cocaine cartels and talked about what he learned: I learned that not only did they not fear our war on drugs, they counted on it to increase the market price and to weed out the smaller, inefficient drug dealers. They found U.S. interdiction efforts laughable. The only U.S. action they feared was an effective demand reduction program. On one undercover tape-recorded conversation, a top cartel chief, Jorge Roman, expressed his gratitude for the drug war, calling it â€Å"a sham put on for the American taxpayer† that was actually â€Å"good for business† (Lynch, 92). Prohibition of drugs continues to allow organized crime to raise their death toll and make massive profits. Further evidence on how prohibition can fail and give rise to crime is quite clear looking back to the attempted prohibition of alcohol in the 1920s in the United States. The Volstead Act and Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution banned the sale of alcohol and caused much unrest among the citizenry of the country. Widespread criminalShow MoreRelatedEssay on The War On Drugs1079 Words   |  5 PagesIn recent years the so-called â€Å"war on drugs† has taken over the streets and back alleys of suburban America. It has caused a problem that mirrors the prohibition days of the 1920’s and early 30’s. Politicians trying to play â€Å"tough guy,† are only contributing to more violence. Their laws have created an underground drug-trade, in which modern drug-dealers have taken the place of the bootleggers of old. The real question is whether or not this â€Å"war† is working. Most people would like to believe thatRead MoreGun Control Is Not The Solution982 Words   |  4 PagesFurther Gun Control is not the Solution Lately, as a nation, it seems that we can’t progress more than a month without hearing an incident on national news concerning a shooting. Every shooting that occurs is gaining the national media spotlight. This is prompting leaders and politicians around the country to call for further gun control to answer this current epidemic. Creating new gun laws is not the solution. This only creates extra problems with law-abiding citizens obtaining a firearm and infringingRead MoreWe Have Too Much Accessibility On The Internet1717 Words   |  7 Pageswatching it simply out of entertainment. According to the National Institute of Drug Abuse, people who abuse drugs typically do so for the purpose of feeling short bursts of dopamine that ultimately make a person feel better, calmer, happier, and most importantly taking away bad feelings. This is ordinary modern drug use. However, this novel takes place in a futuristic era where society pumps out different types of drugs for body modif ications as if it’s nothing. That just shows how the technologicalRead MoreMarijuana Position Paper - Pro Legalization3633 Words   |  15 Pageshistory of Marijuana prohibition in America is one filled with racial motives and propaganda, but surprisingly was not an issue before 80 years ago. In fact, when Ronald Reagan was a child, marijuana was still legal in his state (Guither). Many people assume that marijuana was made illegal through some kind of scientific or medical process which classified it as a dangerous drug, and though government hearings was in turn made illegal. The actual story of Marijuana prohibition in America had nothingRead MoreLegalizing Prostitution in Britain Essay1270 Words   |  6 Pagesthat prostitution is not as harmless as it seems: there are victims. Many sex workers (mostly women) are not working out of their own free will and, aside from the brutal realities of being sex slaves, are subjected to further abuse, drugs and rape. Each year, several thousand women are trafficked from Eastern European countries for prostitution in sex industry centres all over the world. The practises are extremely oppressive and incompatible with universal standardsRead MoreThe War on Drugs Essay2778 Words   |  12 PagesDrugs have been around for thousands of years and were used for a variety of reasons. They were used for healing aliments that one might have and for recreational reasons. However, as time went on and society advanced so did its outlook on any form of a controlled substance and their uses. We began to see the benefits they had and developed other ways to use them for everyday illnesses, which wasn’t anything new, but we finally had the ability to understand why they helped. 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These steps will be explained in detail and related to the legalization of marijuana. ​ Legalization of Marijuana: Debates and Solutions Marijuana has been around for hundreds of years, being able to serve many different purposes. Between 7000 and 8000 B.C. was the first time period where the plant was introduced. Back in those times, hemp was believed to be the material used to

Engineering Economic free essay sample

The final section expands on the principles of benefit-cost analysis. An in-depth treatment of the practices and techniques covered in this compilation is available in the ASTM compilation of standards on building economics. 2 The ASTM compilation also includes case illustrations showing how to apply the practices and techniques to investment decisions. A broader perspective on the application of engineering economics to fire protection engineering can be found in The Economics of Fire Protection by Ramachandran. This work is intended as a textbook for fire protection engineers and includes material and references that expand on several other chapters of this section of the SFPE handbook. Time Value of Money The following are reasons why $1000 today is â€Å"worth† more than $1000 one year from today: 1. Inflation 2. Risk 3. Cost of money Of these, the cost of money is the most predictable, and, hence, it is the essential component of economic analysis. Cost of money is repres ented by (1) money paid for the use of borrowed money, or (2) return on investment. Cost of money is determined by an interest rate. Time value of money is defined as the time-dependent value of money stemming both from changes in the purchasing power of money (inflation or deflation) and from the real earning potential of alternative investments over time. Cash-Flow Diagrams It is difficult to solve a problem if you cannot see it. The easiest way to approach problems in economic analysis is to draw a picture. The picture should show three things: 1. A time interval divided into an appropriate number of equal periods 2. All cash outflows (deposits, expenditures, etc. ) in each period 3. All cash inflows (withdrawals, income, etc. ) for each period Unless otherwise indicated, all such cash flows are considered to occur at the end of their respective periods. Figure 5-7. 1 is a cash-flow diagram showing an outflow or disbursement of $1000 at the beginning of year 1 and an inflow or return of $2000 at the end of year 5. Cash-Flow Concepts Cash flow is the stream of monetary (dollar) values— costs (inputs) and benefits (outputs)—resulting from a project investment. Dr. John M. Watts, Jr. , holds degrees in fire protection engineering, industrial engineering, and operations research. He is director of the Fire Safety Institute, a not-for-profit information, research, and educational corporation located in Middlebury, Vermont. Dr. Watts also serves as editor of NFPA’s Fire Technology. Dr. Robert E. Chapman is an economist in the Office of Applied Economics, Building and Fire Research Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology. Notation To simplify the subject of economic analysis, symbols are introduced to represent types of cash flows and 5–93 5–94 Fire Risk Analysis $2000 F(2) C F(1) = F(1)(i) Interest is applied to the new sum: 0 1 2 3 4 5 C (F)(1)(1 = i) C P(1 = i)2 F (3) C F (2)(1 = i) C P(1 = i)3 and by mathematical induction, F(N) C P(1 = i)N Figure 5-7. 1. $1000 Cash-flow diagram. EXAMPLE: $100 at 10 percent per year for 5 yr yields F(5) C 100(1 = 0. 1)5 C 100(1. 1)5 C 100(1. 61051) C $161. 05 which is over 7 percent greater than with simple interest. EXAMPLE: In 1626 Willem Verhulst bought Manhattan Island from the Canarsie Indians for 60 florins ($24) worth of merchandise (a price of about 0. 5 cents per hectare [0. 2 cents per acre]). At an average interest rate of 6 percent, what is the present value (2001) of the Canarsies’ $24? F C P(1 = i)N C $24(1 = 0. 06)375 C $7. 4 ? 1010 Seventy-four billion dollars is a reasonable approximation of the present land value of the island of Manhattan. interest factors. The symbols used in this chapter conform to ANSI Z94;4 however, not all practitioners follow this standard convention, and care must be taken to avoid confusion when reading the literature. The following symbols will be used here: PC FC NC iC Present sum of money ($) Future sum of money ($) Number of interest periods Interest rate per period (%) A complete list of the ANSI Z94 symbols is given in Appendix A to this chapter. Interest Calculations Interest is the money paid for the use of borrowed money or the return on invested capital. The economic cost of construction, installation, ownership, or operation can be estimated correctly only by including a factor for the economic cost of money. Simple interest: To illustrate the basic concepts of interest, an additional notation will be used: F(N) C Future sum of money after N periods Then, for simple interest, F(1) C P = (P)(i) C P(1 = i) and F(N) C P = (N)(P)(i) C P(1 = Ni) For example: $100 at 10 percent per year for 5 yr yields F(5) C 100[1 = (5)(0. )] C 100(1. 5) C $150 However, interest is almost universally compounded to include interest on the interest. Compound interest F(1) C P = (P)(i) C P(1 = i) is the same as simple interest, Interest Factors Interest factors are multiplicative numbers calculated from interest formulas for given interest rates and periods. They are used to convert cash flows occurring at different times to a common time. The f unctional formats used to represent these factors are taken from ANSI Z94, and they are summarized in Appendix B to this chapter. Compound Amount Factor In the formula for finding the future value of a sum of money with compound interest, the mathematical expression (1 = i)N is referred to as the compound amount factor, represented by the functional format (F/P, i, N). Thus, F C P(F/P, i, N) Interest tables: Values of the compound amount, present worth, and other factors that will be discussed shortly, are tabulated for a variety of interest rates and number of periods in most texts on engineering economy. Example tables are presented in Appendix C to this chapter. Although calculators and computers have greatly reduced the need for such tables, they are often still useful for interpolations. Engineering Economics 5–95 Present Worth Present worth is the value found by discounting future cash flows to the present or base time. Discounting: The inverse of compounding is determining a present amount which will yield a specified future sum. This process is referred to as discounting. The equation for discounting is found readily by using the compounding equation to solve for P in terms of F: P C F(1 = i)gt;N EXAMPLE: What present sum will yield $1000 in 5 yr at 10 percent? P C 1000(1. 1)gt;5 C 1000(0. 62092) C $620. 92 This result means that $620. 92 â€Å"deposited† today at 10 percent compounded annually will yield $1000 in 5 yr. Present worth factor: In the discounting equation, the expression (1 = i)gt;N is called the present worth factor and is represented by the symbol (P/F, i, N). Thus, for the present worth of a future sum at i percent interest for N periods, P C F(P/F, i, N) Note that the present worth factor is the reciprocal of the compound amount factor. Also note that (P/F, i, N) C 1 (F/P, i, N) Nominal versus effective interest: It is generally assumed that interest is compounded annually. However, interest may be compounded more frequently. When this occurs, there is a nominal interest or annual percentage rate and an effective interest, which is the figure used in calculations. For example, a savings bank may offer 5 percent interest compounded quarterly, which is not the same as 5 percent per year. A nominal rate of 5 percent compounded quarterly is the same as 1. 25 percent every three months or an effective rate of 5. 1 percent per year. If r C Nominal interest rate, and M C Number of subperiods per year then the effective interest rate is †¹ ? M r gt;1 iC 1= M EXAMPLE: Credit cards usually charge interest at a rate of 1. 5 percent per month. This amount is a nominal rate of 18 percent. What is the effective rate? i C (1 = 0. 015)12 gt; 1 C 1. 1956 gt; 1 C 19. 56% Continuous interest: A special case of effective interest occurs when the number of periods per year is infinite. This represents a situation of continuous interest, also referred to as continuous compounding. Formulas for continuous interest can be derived by examining limits as M approaches infinity. Formulas for interest factors using continuous compounding are included in Appendix B. Continuous interest is compared to monthly interest in Table 5-7. 1. EXAMPLE: Compare the future amounts obtained under various compounding periods at a nominal interest rate of 12 percent for 5 yr, if P C $10,000. (See Table 5-7. 2. ) EXAMPLE: What interest rate is required to triple $1000 in 10 years? PC therefore, (P/F, i, 10) C From Appendix C, (P/F, 10%, 10) C 0. 3855 and (P/F, 12%, 10) C 0. 220 By linear interpolation, i C 11. 6% 1 3 F C (P/F, i, 10) 3 Series Payments Life would be simpler if all financial transactions were in single lump-sum payments, now or at some time in the Table 5-7. 1 Continuous Interest (%) Effective Nominal % 5 10 15 20 Monthly 5. 1 10. 5 16. 1 21. 9 Continuous 5. 1 10. 5 16. 2 22. 1 Interest Periods Normally, but not always, the interest period is taken as 1 yr. There may b e subperiods of quarters, months, weeks, and so forth. 5–96 Table 5-7. 2 Compounding Annual Semi-annual Quarterly Monthly Weekly Daily Hourly Instantaneously aF/P Fire Risk Analysis Example of Continuous Interest N C 5 yr, r C 12% M 1 2 4 12 52 365 8760 a i 12. 000 12. 360 12. 551 12. 683 12. 734 12. 747 12. 749 12. 750 NM 5 10 20 60 260 1825 43,800 a F/P 1. 76234 1. 79085 1. 80611 1. 81670 1. 820860 1. 821938 1. 822061 1. 822119a F 17,623. 40 17,908. 50 18,061. 10 18,167. 00 18,208. 60 18,219. 38 18,220. 61 18,221. 19 (instantaneous) C e Ni C e 5(0. 12) C e 0. 6. future. However, most situations involve a series of regular payments, for example, car loans and mortgages. Series compound amount factor: Given a series of regular payments, what will they be worth at some future time? Let A C the amount of a regular end-of-period payment Then, note that each payment, A, is compounded for a different period of time. The first payment will be compounded for N gt; 1 periods (yr): F C A(1 = i)Ngt;1 and the second payment for N gt; 2 periods: F C A(1 = i)Ngt;2 and so forth. Thus, the total future value is F C A(1 = i)Ngt;1 = A(1 = i)Ngt;2 = ? = A(1 = i) = A or FC A[(1 = i)N gt; 1] i Capital recovery factor: It is also important to be able to relate regular periodic payments to their present worth; for example, what monthly installments will pay for a $10,000 car in 3 yr at 15 percent? Substituting the compounding equation F C P(F/P, i, N) in the sinking fund equation, A C F(A/F, i, N), yields A C P(F/P, i, N)(A/F, i, N) And, substituting the corresponding interest factors gives AC P [i(1 = i)N ] [(1 = i)N gt; 1] In this equation, the interest expression is known as the capital recovery factor, since the equation defines a regular income necessary to recover a capital investment. The symbolic equation is A C P(A/P, i, N) Series present worth factor: As with the other factors, there is a corresponding inverse to the capital recovery factor. The series present worth factor is found by solving the capital recovery equation for P. PCA or, symbolically P C A(P/A, i, N) [(1 = i)N gt; 1] [i(1 = i)N ] The interest expression in this equation is known as the series compound amount factor, (F/A, i, N), thus F C A(F/A, i, N) Sinking fund factor: The process corresponding to the inverse of series compounding is referred to as a sinking fund; that is, what size regular series payments are necessary to acquire a given future amount? Solving the series compound amount equation for A, 8 4 i AC F [(1 = i)N gt; 1] Or, using the symbol (A/F, i, N) for the sinking fund factor A C F(A/F, i, N) Here, note that the sinking fund factor is the reciprocal of the series compound amount factor, that is, (A/F, i, N) C 1/(F/A, i, N). Other Interest Calculation Concepts Additional concepts involved in interest calculations include continuous cash flow, capitalized costs, beginning of period payments, and gradients. Continuous cash flow: Perhaps the most useful function of continuous interest is its application to situations where the flow of money is of a continuous nature. Continuous cash flow is representative for 1. A series of regular payments for which the interval between payments is very short 2. A disbursement at some unknown time (which is then considered to be spread out over the economic period) Engineering Economics 5–97 Factors for calculating present or future worth of a series of annual amounts, representing the total of a continuous cash flow throughout the year, may be derived by integrating corresponding continuous interest factors over the number of years the flow is maintained. Continuous cash flow is an appropriate way to handle economic evaluations of risk, for example, the present value of an annual expected loss. Formulas for interest factors representing continuous, uniform cash flows are included in Appendix B. Capitalized costs: Sometimes there are considerations, such as some public works projects, which are considered to last indefinitely and thereby provide perpetual service. For example, how much should a community be willing to invest in a reservoir which will reduce fire insurance costs by some annual amount, A? Taking the limit of the series present worth factor as the number of periods goes to infinity gives the reciprocal of the interest rate. Thus, capitalized costs are just the annual amount divided by the interest rate. When expressed as an amount required to produce a fixed yield in perpetuity, it is sometimes referred to as an annuity. Beginning-of-period payments: Most returns on investment (cash inflows) occur at the end of the period during which they accrued. For example, a bank computes and pays interest at the end of the interest period. Accordingly, interest tables, such as those in Appendix C, are computed for end-of-year payments. For example, the values of the capital recovery factor (A/P, i, N) assume that the regular payments, A, occur at the end of each period. On the other hand, most disbursements (cash outflows) occur at the beginning of the period (e. g. , insurance premiums). When dealing with beginning-of-period payments, it is necessary to make adjustments. One method of adjustment for beginning-of-period payments is to calculate a separate set of factors. Another way is to logically interpret the effect of beginning-of-period payments for a particular problem, for example, treating the first payment as a present value. The important thing is to recognize that such variations can affect economic analysis. Gradients: It occasionally becomes necessary to treat the case of a cash flow which regularly increases or decreases at each period. Such patterned changes in cash flow are called gradients. They may be a constant amount (linear or arithmetic progression), or they may be a constant percentage (exponential or geometric progression). Various equations for dealing with gradient series may be found in Appendix B. Fire protection engineering economic analysis is primarily concerned with cost-reduction decisions, finding the least expensive way to fulfill certain requirements, or minimizing the sum of expected fire losses plus investment in fire protection. There are four common methods of comparing alternative investments: (1) present worth, (2) annual cost, (3) rate of return, and (4) benefit-cost analysis. Each of these is dependent on a selected interest rate or discount rate to adjust cash flows at different points in time. Discount Rate The term discount rate is often used for the interest rate when comparing alternative projects or strategies. Selection of discount rate: If costs and benefits accrue equally over the life of a project or strategy, the selection of discount rate will have little impact on the estimated benefit-cost ratios. However, most benefits and costs occur at different times over the project life cycle. Thus, costs of constructing a fire-resistive building will be incurred early in contrast to benefits, which will accrue over the life of the building. The discount rate then has a significant impact on measures such as benefit-cost ratios, since the higher the discount rate, the lower the present value of future benefits. In view of the uncertainty concerning appropriate discount rate, analysts frequently use a range of discount rates. This procedure indicates the sensitivity of the analysis to variations in the discount rate. In some instances, project rankings based on present values may be affected by the discount rate as shown in Figure 5-7. 2. Project A is preferred to project B for discount rates below 15 percent, while the converse is true for discount rates greater than 15 percent. In this instance, the decision to adopt project A in preference to project B will reflect the belief that the appropriate discount rate is less than or equal to 15 percent. A Net present value 0 B Comparison of Alternatives Most decisions are based on economic criteria. Investments are unattractive, unless it seems likely they will be recovered with interest. Economic decisions can be divided into two classes: 1. Income-expansion—that is, the objective of capitalism 2. Cost-reduction—the basis of profitability 5 10 15 20 Discount rate (%) Figure 5-7. 2. Impact of discount rate on project selection. 5–98 Fire Risk Analysis A comparison of benefits and costs may also be used to determine the payback period for a particular project or strategy. However, it is important to discount future costs or benefits in such analyses. For example, an analysis of the Beverly Hills Supper Club fire compared annual savings from a reduction in insurance premiums to the costs of sprinkler installation. Annual savings were estimated at $11,000, while costs of sprinkler installation ranged from $42,000 to $68,000. It was concluded that the installation would have been paid back in four to seven years (depending on the cost of the sprinklers). However, this analysis did not discount future benefits, so that $11,000 received at the end of four years was deemed equivalent to $11,000 received in the first year. Once future benefits are discounted, the payback period ranges from five to eleven years with a discount rate of 10 percent. Inflation and the discount rate: Provision for inflation may be made in two ways: (1) estimate all future costs and benefits in constant prices, and use a discount rate which represents the opportunity cost of capital in the absence of inflation; or (2) estimate all future benefits and costs in current or inflated prices, and use a discount rate which includes an allowance for inflation. The discount rate in the first instance may be considered the real discount rate, while the discount rate in the second instance is the nominal discount rate. The use of current or inflated prices with the real discount rate, or constant prices with the nominal discount rate, will result in serious distortions in economic analysis. Present worth (Plan A) C P = A(P/A, 12%, 40) C $1,000,000 = $1000(8. 24378) C $1,008,244 Present worth (Plan B) C P = A(P/A, 12%, 40) = F(P/F, 12%, 20) C $200,000 = $50,000(8. 24378) = $75,000(0. 0367) C $619,964 Thus, plan B is the least-cost alternative. A significant limitation of present worth analysis is that it cannot be used to compare alternatives with unequal economic lives. That is, a ten-year plan and a twenty-year plan should not be compared by discounting their costs to a present worth. A better method of comparison is annual cost. Annual Cost To compare alternatives by annual cost, all cash flows are changed to a series of uniform payments. C urrent expenditures, future costs or receipts, and gradients must be converted to annual costs. If a lump-sum cash flow occurs at some time other than the beginning or end of the economic life, it must be converted in a two-step process: first moving it to the present and then spreading it uniformly over the life of the project. Alternatives with unequal economic lives may be compared by assuming replacement in kind at the end of the shorter life, thus maintaining the same level of uniform payment. System Cost Partial system Full system $ 8000 $15,000 Insurance Premium $1000 $250 Life 15 yr 20 yr Present Worth In a present worth comparison of alternatives, the costs associated with each alternative investment are all converted to a present sum of money, and the least of these values represents the best alternative. Annual costs, future payments, and gradients must be brought to the present. Converting all cash flows to present worth is often referred to as discounting. EXAMPLE: Two alternate plans are available for increasing the capacity of existing water transmission lines between an unlimited source and a reservoir. The unlimited source is at a higher elevation than the reservoir. Plan A calls for the construction of a parallel pipeline and for flow by gravity. Plan B specifies construction of a booster pumping station. Estimated cost data for the two plans are as follows: Plan A Pipeline Construction cost Life Cost of replacing equipment at the end of 20 yr Operating costs $1,000,000 40 years Plan B Pumping Station $200,000 40 years (structure) 20 years (equipment) EXAMPLE: Compare the value of a partial or full sprinkler system purchased at 10 percent interest. Annual cost (partial system) C A = P(A/P, 10%, 15) C $1000 = $8000(0. 3147) C $2051. 75 Annual cost (full system) C A = P(A/P, 10%, 20) C $250 = $15,000(0. 11746) C $2011. 90 The full system is slightly more economically desirable. When costs are this comparable, it is especially important to consider other relevant decision criteria, for example, uninsured losses. 0 $1000/yr $75,000 $50,000/yr Rate of Return Rate of return is, by definition, the interest rate at which the present worth of the net cas h flow is zero. Computationally, this method is the most complex method of comparison. If more than one interest factor is involved, If money is worth 12 percent, which plan is more economical? (Assume annual compounding, zero salvage value, and all other costs equal for both plans. ) Engineering Economics 5–99 the solution is by trial and error. Microcomputer programs are most useful with this method. The calculated interest rate may be compared to a discount rate identified as the â€Å"minimum attractive rate of return† or to the interest rate yielded by alternatives. Rate-of-return analysis is useful when the selection of a number of projects is to be undertaken within a fixed or limited capital budget. EXAMPLE: An industrial fire fighting truck costs $100,000. Savings in insurance premiums and uninsured losses from the acquisition and operation of this equipment is estimated at $60,000/yr. Salvage value of the apparatus after 5 yr is expected to be $20,000. A full-time driver during operating hours will accrue an added cost of $10,000/yr. What would the rate of return be on this investment? @ 40% present worth C P = F(P/F , 40%, 5) = A(P/A, 40%, 5) C gt;$100,000 = $20,000(0. 18593) = ($60,000 gt; 10,000)(2. 352) C $5,478. 60 @ 50% present worth C P = F(P/F, 50%, 5) = A(P/A, 50%, 5) C gt;$100,000 = $20,000(0. 13169) = ($60,000 gt; $10,000)(1. 7366) C gt;$10,536. 40 By linear interpolation, the rate of return is 43 percent. costs of operating fire departments. Indirect costs are more difficult to measure. They include items such as the constraints on choice due to fire protection requirements by state and local agencies. A major factor in the identification of relevant benefits and c osts pertains to the decision unit involved. Thus, if the decision maker is a property owner, the relevant benefits from fire protection are likely to be the reduction in fire insurance premiums and fire damage or business interruption losses not covered by insurance. In the case of a municipality, relevant benefits are the protection of members of the community, avoidance of tax and payroll losses, and costs associated with assisting fire victims. Potential benefits, in these instances, are considerably greater than those faced by a property owner. However, the community may ignore some external effects of fire incidents. For example, the 1954 automobile transmission plant fire in Livonia, Michigan, affected the automobile industry in Detroit and various automobile dealers throughout the United States. However, there was little incentive for the community to consider such potential losses in their evaluation of fire strategies, since they would pertain to persons outside the community. It might be concluded, therefore, that the more comprehensive the decision unit, the more likely the inclusion of all relevant costs and benefits, in particular, social costs and benefits. Measurement of Benefits and Costs Direct losses are measured or estimated statistically or by a priori judgment. Actuarial fire-loss data collected nationally or for a particular industry may be used, providing it is adequately specific and the collection mechanism is reliable. More often, an experienced judgment of potential losses is made, sometimes referred to as the maximum probable loss (MPL). Indirect losses, if considered, are much more difficult to appraise. A percentage or multiple of direct losses is sometimes used. However, when indirect loss is an important decision parameter, a great deal of research into monetary evaluation may be necessary. Procedures for valuing a human life and other indirect losses are discussed in Ramachandran. 3 In the measurement of benefits, it is appropriate to adjust for utility or disutility which may be associated with a fire loss. Costs may be divided into two major categories: (1) costs of private fire protection services, and (2) costs of public fire protection services. In either case, cost estimates will reflect the opportunity cost of providing the service. For example, the cost of building a fire-resistive structure is the production foregone due to the diversion of labor and resources to make such a structure. Similarly, the cost of a fire department is the loss of other community services which might have been provided with the resources allocated to the fire department. Benefit-Cost Analysis Benefit-cost analysis, also referred to as cost-benefit analysis, is a method of comparison in which the consequences of an investment are evaluated in monetary terms and divided into the separate categories of benefits and costs. The amounts are then converted to annual equivalents or present worths for comparison. The important steps of a benefit-cost analysis are 1. 2. 3. 4. Identification of relevant benefits and costs Measurement of these benefits and costs Selection of best alternative Treatment of uncertainty Identification of Relevant Benefits and Costs The identification of benefits and costs depends on the particular project under consideration. Thus, in the case of fire prevention or control activities, the benefits are based on fire losses prior to such activities. Fire losses may be classified as direct or indirect. Direct economic losses are property and contents losses. Indirect losses include such things as the costs of injuries and deaths, costs incurred by business or industry due to business interruption, losses to the community from interruption of services, loss of payroll or taxes, loss of market share, and loss of reputation. The direct costs of fire protection activities include the costs of constructing fire-resistive buildings, installation costs of fire protection systems, and the Selection of Best Alternative There are two considerations in determining benefitcost criteria. The first pertains to project acceptability, while the second pertains to project selection. Project acceptability may be based on benefit-cost difference or benefit-cost ratio. Benefit-cost ratio is a measure 5–100 Fire Risk Analysis of project worth in which the monetary equivalent benefits are divided by the monetary equivalent costs. The first criterion requires that the value of benefits less costs be greater than zero, while the second criterion requires that the benefit-cost ratio be greater than one. The issue is more complicated in the case of project selection, since several alternatives are involved. It is no longer a question of determining the acceptability of a single project, but rather selecting from among alternative projects. Consideration should be given to changes in costs and benefits as various strategies are considered. Project selection decisions are illustrated in Figure 5-7. 3. The degree of fire protection is given on the horizontal axis, while the marginal costs and benefits associated with various levels of fire safety are given on the vertical axis. As the diagram indicates, marginal costs are low initially and then increase. Less information is available concerning the marginal benefit curve, and it may, in fact, be horizontal. The economically optimum level of fire protection is given by the intersection of the marginal cost and marginal benefit curves. Beyond this point, benefits from increasing fire protection are exceeded by the costs of providing the additional safety. A numerical example is given in Table 5-7. 3. There are five possible strategies or programs possible. The first strategy, A, represents the initial situation, while the remaining four strategies represent various fire loss reduction activities, each with various costs. Strategies are arranged in ascending order of costs. Fire losses under each of the five strategies are given in the second row, while the sum of fire losses and fire reduction costs for each strategy is given in the third row. The sum of fire losses and fire reduction costs of each strategy is equivalent to the life-cycle cost of that strategy. Life-cycle cost analysis is an alternative to benefit-cost analysis when the outcomes of the investment decision are cost savings rather than benefits per se. Additional information on life-cycle cost analysis is found in Fuller and Petersen. 5 Table 5-7. 3 Use of Benefit-Cost Analyses in Strategy Selection Strategy Category Fire reduction costs Fire losses Sum of fire reduction costs and fire losses Marginal benefits Marginal costs Marginal benefits minus marginal costs Marginal benefit-cost ratio A 0 100 100 0 0 0 — B 10 70 80 30 10 20 3. 0 C 25 50 75 20 15 5 1. 33 D 45 40 85 10 20 –10 0. 5 E 70 35 105 5 25 –20 0. 2 Marginal costs Data in the first two rows may then be used to determine the marginal costs or marginal benefits from the replacement of one strategy by another. Thus, strategy B has a fire loss of $70 compared to $100 for strategy A, so the marginal benefit is $30. Similarly, the marginal benefit from strategy C is the reduction in fire losses from B to C or $20. The associated marginal cost of strategy C is $15. Declining marginal benefits and rising marginal costs result in the selection of strategy C as the optimum strategy. At this point, the difference between marginal benefits and marginal costs is still positive. Marginal benefit-cost ratios are given in the last row. It is worth noting that, while the highest marginal benefitcost ratio is reached at activity level B (as is the highest marginal benefit-cost difference), project C is still optimum, since it yields an additional net benefit of $5. This finding is reinforced by examining changes in the sum of fire losses and fire reduction costs (i. e. , life-cycle costs). Total cost plus loss first declines, reaching a minimum at point C, and then increases. This pattern is not surprising, since as long as marginal benefits exceed marginal costs, total losses should decrease. Thus, the two criteria— equating marginal costs and benefits, and minimizing the sum of fire losses and fire reduction costs—yield identical outcomes. Treatment of Uncertainty $ Marginal benefits A final issue concerns the treatment of uncertainty. One method for explicitly introducing risk considerations is to treat benefits and costs as random variables which may be described by probability distributions. For example, an estimate of fire losses might consider the following events: no fire, minor fire, intermediate fire, and major fire. Each event has a probability of occurrence and an associated damage loss. The total expected loss (EL) is given by EL C 3 } iC0 piDi 0 Degree of fire safety 100% Figure 5-7. 3. Project selection. where p0 C probability of no fire p1 C probability of a minor fire Engineering Economics 5–101 2 C probability of an intermediate fire p3 C probability of a major fire Dn C associated damage loss, n C 0,1,2,3 Expected losses may be computed for different fire protection strategies. Thus, a fire protection strategy that costs C3 and reduces damage losses of a major fire from D3 to D3 will result in an expected loss EL C p0D0 = p1D1 = p2D2 = p3D3 = C3 Similarly, a fire control strategy that costs C2 and reduces the probability of an intermediate fire from p2 to p2 has an expected loss EL C p0D0 = p1D1 = p2D2 = p3D3 = C2 A comparison of expected losses from alternative strategies may then be used to determine the optimal strategy. Use of expected value has a limitation in that only the average value of the probability distribution is considered. Discussion of other procedures for evaluating uncertain outcomes is given by Anderson and Settle. 6 5. S. K. Fuller and S. R. Petersen, â€Å"Life-Cycle Costing Manual for the Federal Energy Management Program,† NIST Handbook 135, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD (1996). 6. L. G. Anderson and R. E. Settle, Benefit-Cost Analysis: A Practical Guide, Lexington Books, Lexington, MA (1977). Additional Readings R. E. Chapman, â€Å"A Cost-Conscious Guide to Fire Safety in Health Care Facilities,† NBSIR 82-2600, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC (1982). R. E. Chapman and W. G. Hall, â€Å"Code Compliance at Lower Costs: A Mathematical Programming Approach,† Fire Technology, 18, 1, pp. 77–89 (1982). L. P. Clark, â€Å"A Life-Cycle Cost Analysis Methodology for Fire Protection Systems in New Health Care Facilities,† NBSIR 822558, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC (1982). W. J. Fabrycky, G. J. Thuesen, and D. Verma, Economic Decision Analysis, 3rd ed. Prentice Hall International, London (1998). E. L. Grant, W. G. Ireson, and R. S. Leavenworth, Principles of Engineering Economy, 8th ed. , John Wiley and Sons, New York (1990). J. S. McConnaughey, â€Å"An Economic Analysis of Building Code Impacts: A Suggested Approach,† NBSIR 78-1528, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC (1978). D. G. Newnan and J. P. Lavelle, Engineering Economic Analysis, 7th ed. , Engineering Press, Austin, TX (1998). C. S. Park, Contemporary Engineering Economics, 2nd ed. , AddisonWesley, Menlo Park, CA (1997). J. L. Riggs, D. D. Bedworth, and S. U. Randhawa, Engineering Economics, 4th ed. , McGraw-Hill, New York (1996). R. T. Ruegg and H. E. Marshall, Building Economics: Theory and Practice, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York (1990). R. T. Ruegg and S. K. Fuller, â€Å"A Benefit-Cost Model of Residential Fire Sprinkler Systems,† NBS Technical Note 1203, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC (1984). W. G. Sullivan, J. A. Bontadelli, and E. M. Wicks, Engineering Economy, 11th ed. , Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ (2000). References Cited 1. ASTM E833, Definitions of Terms Relating to Building Economics, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA (1999). 2. ASTM Standards on Building Economics, 4th ed. , American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA (1999). 3. G. Ramachandran, The Economics of Fire Protection, E FN Spon, London (1998). 4. American National Standards Institute Standard Z94. 0-1982, â€Å"Industrial Engineering Terminology,† Chapter 5, Engineering Economy, Industrial Engineering and Management Press, Atlanta, GA (1983). Appendix A: Symbols and Definitions of Economic Parameters Symbol Definition of Parameter Cash flow at end of period j End-of-period cash flows (or equivalent end-of-period values) in a uniform series continuing for a specified number of periods Amount of money (or equivalent value) flowing continuously and uniformly during each period, continuing for a specified number of periods Future sum of money—the letter F implies future (or equivalent future value) Uniform period-by-period increase or decrease in cash flows (or equivalent values); the arithmetic gradient Number of compounding periods per interest perioda Number of compounding eriods Present sum of money—the letter â€Å"P† implies present (or equivalent present value). Sometimes used to indicate initial capital investment. Salvage (residual) value of capital investment Rate of price level increase or decrease per period; an â€Å"inflation† of â€Å"escalation† rate Uniform rate of cash flow increase or decrease from period to period; the geometric gradient Effective interest rate per interest perioda (discount rate), expressed as a percent or decimal fraction Nominal interest rate per interest period,a expressed as a percent or decimal fraction Aj A – A F G M N P S f g i r Normally, but not always, the interest period is taken as 1 yr. Subperiods, then, would be quarters, months, weeks, and so forth. 5–102 Fire Risk Analysis Appendix B: Functional Forms of Compound Interest Factorsa Name of Factor Algebraic Formulation Functional Format Group A. All cash flows discrete: end-of-period compounding Compound amount (single payment) Present worth (single payment) Sinking fund Capital recovery (1 = i)N (1 = (F/P, i, N) (P/F, i, N) (A/F, i, N) (A/P, i, N) (F/A, i, N) (P/A, i, N) (A/G, i, N) (P/G, i, N) i)–N i (1 = i )N – 1 i(1 = i)N (1 = i )N – 1 1 = i )N – 1 i (1 = i )N – 1 i(1 = i )N (1 = i )N – iN – 1 i (1 = i )N – i (1 = i )N – iN – 1 i 2(1 = i ) N Compound amount (uniform series) Present worth (uniform series) Arithmetic gradient to uniform series Arithmetic gradient to present worth Group B. All cash flows discrete: continuous compounding at nominal rate r per period Continuous compounding compound amount (single payment) Continuous compounding present worth (single payment) Continuous compounding present worth (single payment) Continuous compounding sinking fund Continuous compounding capital recovery Continuous compounding compound amount (uniform series) rN e–rN erN – 1 erN(er – 1) er – 1 erN – 1 erN(er – 1) erN – 1 erN – 1 er – 1 (F/P, r, N) (P/F, r, N) (P/A, r, N) (A/F, r, N) (A/P, r, N) (F/A, r, N) Group C. Continuous, uniform cash flows: continuous compounding Continuous compounding sinking fund (continuous, uniform payments) Continuous compounding capital recovery (continuous, uniform payments) Continuous compounding compound amount (continuous, uniform payments) Continuous compounding present worth (continuous, uniform payments) aSee r erN – 1 rerN erN – 1 erN – 1 r erN – 1 rerN – A /F, r, N – A /P, r,N – F/A , r, N) – P/A , r, N)

Sample Represents Entire Population †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Sample Represents for Entire Population. Answer: Introduction: Longitudinal is the characteristic of the panel research where the evaluators who might be the judges are arranged in a longitudinal manner. The panel comprises of the people with the different skills and technicalities as well as the background. The diversity is used to experiment and evaluate the final results of the research. The research is conducted in line with the requirements of the judges and the individuals who are assigned the task and responsibility of ascertaining that there exists the proper quorum. A quorum is a given number and specification of the parties that are involved to the session in progress where they deliver according to the laid down requirements and the guidelines that have been stipulated. There are a number of features of the research such as the incorporation of the brainstorming technique that enhances generation of views and points in regards to the matter at hand. The points are in line with the goals and the objective of the research as to why it was convened. The members involved are selected by the oversight authority that enhances that the proper implementation of the plans and procedures is undertaken by the Management. The panel consists of professionals in various fields as well as the qualified individuals that are capable of assessing the current case scenario that is prevalent. The fact that the population is not a matter of concern makes the panel research to be the most suitable in terms of quality and assurance of commitment for the requirements that have been made. There is fact that he watches the television to avoid the thinking of problems that he experiences the problems that are related to the work. Ravi engages the mind an action of proactive nature in order to avoid contemplating a moment that he might have done something else creative. The relationship with the media that the example lays is the escapism where the thoughts and mind escapes from the reality of the life. The soul and body are separated where the escapism is applied because it helps the mind to move in the world of imagination that only Ravi can be able to see alone in order to escape from the excessive thinking. The incorporation of the images in the mind of an individual makes it possible to evade the circumstances that are hard at that moment and thus escapes the hard times by refreshing the mind. The thoughts are involved in a session of interpretation and Management decoding of the information that is viewed from the television. The similarity that is seen to exist between television and dreams is that the both have high degree of wish fulfillment in that there are fulfilled wishes even if the person was unable to attend a particular event or undertaking of an activity he can be able to watch it virtually. Dreams too also have a high degree of visual content in that they make the person to believe that the dreams are true and visiting of various places by use of the mind games. The aspect of fictional narratives is ascertained in that the personification aspect is fulfilled. (Luke, 2015) said the individual is taken to another world of strange thoughts and experiences that are deemed to be enjoyed. The transfer of mind when a person is sleeping is known as dreaming. On the other hand the person also experiences the visual aspect of entertainment from the comfort of his house and this ascertains all his wishes that are deemed to be fulfilled at that particular time. The party viewing the television is assured of a hundred percent wish fulfillment because the distance is reduced and the content is brought according to the preferences. The one interested with the various types of viewing gets to access the same by use of the remote control and changing the channels of the television to the one that will suit them the best. The individual makes sure that the best channel according to his requirement that he has fed in the remote control are transmitted. The movies are of various types such as the romantic ones to the action and drama that makes the viewing enjoyable and interesting. This similarity of the television and dreams is deep in that it is addictive to watch a lot of television as it creates a false mentality as the same as dreams that the person has already attained the level that he aspires. The sleeping fellow is fakes by the dreams that he has already made it happen and achieved which creates a sense of not waking up. The person experiencing the wish being fulfilled is supposed to know that the action was passive and it cannot be accounted for in the real life situation. The characteristics of survey research The observation is the first characteristics that entail proper familiarizing with the environment to be undertaking the research survey. (Samuel, 2015) said the person observing records the conclusion in a piece of paper or file and highlights the important and relevant aspects that will be incorporated in undertaking the research. Sample of the entire population is obtained to perform a survey research hence the person undertaking the survey first familiarizes him with the underlying options. The sample population is the content that makes it possible and easy to carry out the Management entire practice of the researching and conducting the survey. The reason as to why questionnaire are suitable in investigating the topic scenario is because they provide firsthand information that is quality and relevant as in relation to the context. The reliability of the questionnaire is high as compared to other methods of obtaining data and information. The questionnaire information is evident as it is recorded in a sheet that is definite delivered to the respondent who answers all the questions with ease and without any complications experienced. The process entails the obtaining of the sample data and recording it in separate place to obtain the right figures. The sample population is obtained by first scanning the entire population and determines the area that is suitable to extract the sample that is of uniform nature. (Thomas, 2011) said the sample represents the entire population that is left in the environment and this makes it easy to conduct an analysis of the justification of the suitability for a specific given scenario. The target population entails the identified area of concentration by the evaluator whereas the accessible evaluation is that which is close to the researcher and it is easily available by use of the means that are at disposal of the researcher. The target population is the old, youth and women in the region concerning the youth month and the opinions that will be raised by people. The accessible population is the youth since they are the younger pertaining to the context The random sampling technique is the sampling method that is suitable for the study and it it because it is population of different ages and location thus the uniform nature of population is inherent and it is only random quantitative sampling that can be used in this study. The month of the youths is related to any developmental purpose and is it helpful? The questionnaire is followed by a yes or no and also an explanation as to why the respondent has given the answer. Sampling error is reduced by focusing on the most certain population that is uniform. The error may arise from estimation and the researcher therefore needs to reduce the level of estimating in order to minimize the error of sampling. The concept of the external validity is detrimental and it can be improved by conforming to the laid down regulations and objectivity of the research. Remaining focused to the goal of the research and not deviating from the normal expected standard is the improving aspect that will increase the validity of the study. The interviewer bias is eliminated by using a language that is under stable by the party answering and responding to the questionnaire. Gods must be Crazy The episode of the Management television program that I have chosen is a fictional one. The main characters are Gabriel who is the actor or rather the starring and plays the role of an old medicine man and seer as well as the prophet in the episode that contains a lot of fiction. The story entails the culture of the people of the South Africa residing in the famous Kalahari Desert. The white man invades the territory with the local being unaware of the arrival of the alien visitors with the unique behavior of civilization. The fact that there is a huge difference in the culture and the way of thinking as well as language barrier bring the conflict and huge misunderstanding between the Khoikhoi speaking community and the white man from England. The clothes that the people from England are wearing confuse the people in Kalahari and they are used to wearing natural skins and herbs as well as leaves of the trees to cover their body parts. The first element is personification where the bottle that falls from the sky is deemed to be thrown by the Gods as the person stipulates it. Gabriel is the first to discover the falling bottle from the sky which he believes to be magic of the highest order and the gods are angry. The gods are angry and instead of showering the blessings to the people residing in the desert with rain as usual he instead sends them bottles and strange object that is of no help to the people. The fact that the bottle is thrown by the helicopter flying from the top makes the uncivilized person to think the gods must be crazy. The element of civilization is depicted where the man from the bush is taken to a rehabilitation center in order to be taught on how to be able to incorporate the current trends and embrace technology instead of the analogue and obsolete mechanisms of doing things. The man from the bush is given a gun and instead fires at the white mans property and this leads to the suing in the court of law by the complainant. The aspect of civilization is seen to be avoided by the community residing in the region because they have no schools. The third element is traditional beliefs where the community has got different beliefs from the rest of the people in urban regions. The English man has got his way of thinking that tends to differ with a big disparity from the way of thinking of the individual in the bushes. The person who is seen to have acquired the beliefs from the normal and repetitive occurrences is influenced by the hardships that the ancestors have left. The worshipping of gods has been neglected for a long time and thus Gabriel tends to think that the reason as to why the tribe is suffering is because of the foregone traditional beliefs and the cultural practices. The concepts or the jargon that has been used in the text entails the following: Humanitarian concept is perceived to be in the existent of the content because of the decision of the South African government to consider adding a wage additional increment to the workers. The initial wage is to be revised and therefore a new stipulation as to which will be the new wage floor. The income inequality is deemed to be solved where the people are to be balanced using the per capital initiative. The economic crisis is seen to take place where the individuals earnings are below the commissions of salary and remunerations agenda. (Peter, 2014) said the suitable compensation is to be discussed and set in line with the acceptable law that protects the workers. The inclusion of the business technical terms is seen to prevail where the business community is seen to involve in the aspects known to be of fear mongering about the further hemorrhaging jobs to the country of china. There is withdrawing of the labor workforce to the countries like china that have got a higher manufacturing sector and absorbs the many jobless people. The trade unions will also be in a position to put the cases that they possess in a forward scenario in a decent pay and the stronger labor regulations that are used to describe the curbing of the irregularities that may arise at any given time. The life of purpose is the concept that is seen to elaborate the creation of jobs in the locality and to the people of South Africa, this is accompanied with the jargon of whether or not the low level jobs should be permitted or not thus the it is rather provision of the jobs to the unemployed for them to find their livelihood from the economy performance and at the same time reduce unemployment. (Anthony, 2013) said the humble background of these individuals is regarded as a demeaning and this makes it a downright offensive of the occupations. This is which entails the car guards and the other type of distributors in the area such as the mundane repetitive abusive and colloquial language to these humans. The idea of family background is seen to be the major contributor to the status to being jobless in the country. There are developed countries such as Spain and Greece which have got a large number of the people who are unemployed and majority is the young. The kids come from the mi ddle class families and are deemed to be educated in such a way that they can hustle and cater for their own expenses as well as feed themselves using the technical knowledge and the expertise that is inborn in them to look for alternative ways of gaining income. The technology is seen to be the danger to the most job possessors where the replacement will take place. The pink collar and blue collar jobs have the characteristic of being affected the foremost by the introduction for the new coming machine. The machines are coming to automate the activities that are undertaken by the human beings on a daily basis and he is considering them as the source of livelihood. The automation of the cars will look into the Googles self-driving cars that are taking up California by storm thus making it meaningless for the drivers to be hired anymore. There is the psychological basis is seen to prepare the people in an era where the jobs will be limited and other people will remain unemployed and rely on the few employed individuals and the society will be forced to change the its fundamental ways of handling things and possible alternatives will be seen as a suitable basis. The machines are a threat to the opportunity of the jobs and the human race is at a danger of own replenishing and recognition of the some other technological approaches instead of human relationship with each other. The moving beyond the people ethical considerations there should be a developed thinking those problems they are faced in the world. There is offering of the necessary glimpse into the certain future and thus there arises an opportunity to set a course that is deemed different and is capable of circumventing many of the challenges which plague and take charge today in the current world. The problem associated with the conflicting world where those individuals that are from the country are deemed to be responsible of the joblessness criteria, The white race people lead to the depletion of the jobs by crowding the areas that the blacks can get the jobs with ease. The metaphors that are used in these aspect criteria are car guards which mean that watchman is demeaned in the job description which makes it look unsuitable and also heartbreaking as it depicts lack of respect. The downright offensive occupations are allocated very little remunerations due to their nature of not requiring education literacy. The pamphlet distributors is another metaphor that is used while making a no allowed attempt action to do away with the work that is deemed to be mundane hence repetitive unnecessary and also it can be insulting in kind of a way to the humans. 5.4 The discursive practice that produced the text is the aspect of economic crisis in many countries and the poor living standards which are associated with the lack of employment and this has introduced the glorified begging making it obvious for the society to be lazy and unwilling to care for those it is entitled responsibility. (George, 2013) said the racial differences is the source of conflict in South Africa where the tension is heightened to higher levels. This has helped a lot and turning the difference since the owners of wealth in the country are found to be white. The poor people who languish in poverty and joblessness are largely found to be black and thus this makes it unsuitable for the economy to favor both the parties. The fundamental changes are required to be adhered to and this should be seen to automate our work as much as free others who are enslaved to poverty as well as ourselves for a life of higher purpose. The question that is asked in this essay is that will those already owing the wealth of this country ever overcome their prejudices to be able to reach across the race and class divide in order to build a society that is able to nurture its own? This is a hard to answer question because it the challenge for us all is to look deep into the hearts and also far into our bright future and also be in a position to build a strong nation that will be able to cope up with the ravages of an impending world without the necessity of much work for the human beings. Functions of the language fulfilled by the text. The explanation of the terms in an elaborate manner is the function of the language that is seen to take charge. The different diversities in the use of vocabularies and explanation of their meaning have been ascertained by the language. (Norman, 2012) said the language has been used to portray the feelings and air the grievances of the people living in the deplorable conditions This is witnessed especially in the third world countries. The emancipation of the joblessness has been adequately discussed with the bringing forward the reality of the situation into the eyes of the public. The machines will replenish the workforce and also make the people in the white-collar jobs to also lose their employment because of the digital age introduction. The jobs that have been taken already by the robots are such as the lawyers, sports, financial analysts, real estate agents and the surgeons as well as the anesthesiologists. The record of the jobs lost through the introduction of the computerized robots has intensified with a greater number of layoffs being witnessed in the field and experiences becoming obsolete. References Norman, R. (2012). The language has been used to portray the feelings and air the grievances of the people living in the deplorable conditions: American press, New York. George, B. (2013). The racial differences are the source of conflict in South Africa where the tension is heightened to higher levels: German press. New Zealand. Peter, G. (2014). The suitable compensation is to be discussed and set in line with the acceptable law that protects the workers: Parker press. Austria. Samuel, N. (2015). The person observing records the conclusion in a piece of paper or file and highlights the important and relevant aspects that will be incorporated in undertaking the research: Gotham press. Sydney. Anthony, E. (2013). The humble background of these individuals is regarded as a demeaning and this makes it a downright offensive of the occupations: Lowman press. New York Thomas, C. (2011). The sample represents the entire population that is left in the environment and this makes it easy to conduct an analysis of the justification of the suitability for a specific given scenario: Jupiter press. Britain. Luke, V. (2015). The individual is taken to another world of strange thoughts and experiences that are deemed to be enjoyed. Herman press. Austria.